Mesothermal literally means medium-temperature, and refers to hydrothermal mineral deposits formed at between 200-300°C. Shifts in hydrothermal vent fluid temperature and chemical composition are known to serve as an important control on microbial community structure and function in the oceanic crust throughout the world’s oceans. Although the pH of seawater is approximately ∼8 today,99 the higher partial pressure of CO2 at that time has been proposed to lower the pH to 5 or 6.100 Depending on fluid flow, and if the chimney is somewhat leaky, this pH difference would lead to the formation of a pH gradient along the exterior of the chimney wall where CO2 reduction is expected to take place. Natural Radioactive Environments As Sources of Local Disequilibrium for the Emergence of Life. Researchers have discovered a large, previously unknown field of hydrothermal vents in the Gulf of California, about 150 kilometers (100 miles) east of La Paz, Mexico. After the seismic swarm, high -temperature sulfide minerals were found in the glass sands near the margins of the newly formed pit crater and vent fluids with temperatures up to 200° C were measured. However, there are also other physicochemical parameters, such as the pH, which offer alternative methods to optimize the thermodynamic landscape.76 These additional parameters may be especially useful to enhance the selectivity between similar products, because scaling relationships between the binding energy of structurally similar intermediates increases the difficulty of tuning multiple thermodynamic landscapes independently.68,69,77-79, Selectivity is an especially critical issue not only for CO2 reduction at the chimney vicinity,80 but also for industrial (artificial) CO2 reduction23-26,81-83 and other multi‐step electrochemical processes in general,39,84 because of the difficulty and importance of maintaining selectivity in an environment containing multiple reactants. 10. h�b```��,�? ���>���ɺ1��ކ�'���a~����}`N�� �ѝ����R=Җu����Xedz��Ik�Ǫ;Tn��()�2t��0im=(#(�["'Ȼ���l�C��j;�� �$:��br/�A$n=�����$8:":�,�� ����A�������4H��f�h ��@���|�38��"@�obqb2b���t���f��Lי�1]a�� �m��y��4�����$ uX���40h�ڀ4#� Such materials are peer reviewed and may be re‐organized for online delivery, but are not copy‐edited or typeset. Therefore, while we realize that many of the theories concerning the origin of life have focused on single chamber systems due to similarities with the modern cell,51-54 we feel a system with multiple chambers (Figure 3B) is inherently more favorable and thus a more plausible candidate for primitive cells.56. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. “This relationship exists because hydrothermal fluids provide energy for specific microbial metabolic reactions,” says McDermott. The highly saline character of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms. In other words, optimum reactivity can be realized at a specific potential Eelec and pH. Thermal energy is an under‐utilized source of driving force in industrial (artificial) electrochemical systems. Although desirable material properties of hydrothermal vent walls have been inferred previously from the bioenergetic membranes of modern cells, strategies based on fundamental laws of physical chemistry allow naturally occurring chimney minerals to circumvent the lack of structural and catalytic optimization. One way to counteract this problem may be to surround the chamber with semi‐porous walls which allow the transport of specific chemical species (Figure 3A). Finally in section 2.3, we will discuss the possibilities of how the interconversion between chemical potentials (pH) and electrochemical potentials (E) can be utilized to regulate the selectivity of CO2 reduction products.39 This selectivity is a result of electrochemical reactions exhibiting different pH and potential dependences, based on the nature of their particular reaction intermediates.40,41. At a hydrothermal vent, the pH varies depending on the degree of mixing and diffusion, which would expose active sites along the chimney wall to different local pH (Figure 6). Therefore, kinetic regulation of CO2 reduction is a physicochemical requirement which must be satisfied prior to the abiotic synthesis of organic molecules necessary for the emergence of life. Although the exact values of optimum pH and Eelec may deviate slightly from Equation (4), due to reaction kinetics,40,41 it still serves as a first approximation to understand and predict how the selectivity of complex reactions can be manipulated. Hydrothermal vents can be found on all oceans and often in volcanically active areas, as in the Azores, but only recently were they discovered. In this section, we would like to briefly note that the selectivity of CO2 reduction can be regulated by specifically tuning the thermodynamic driving force. This theory postulates that five universal intermediates (acetyl‐CoA, pyruvate, oxaloacetate, succinate, and α‐ketoglutarate) were produced non‐enzymatically via an incomplete version of the reductive tricarboxylic acid (rTCA) cycle, where multiple undesirable side‐reactions must be suppressed to maintain the on‐cycle reactions.88-92. Because of different conditions in the seawater the dissolved minerals precipitate and form hydrothermal plumes. YELLOWSTONE volcano scientists have recorded the hottest hydrothermal vent temperatures on Earth, following a study of Yellowstone's incredible underwater hot springs. We used a combination of cultivation, molecular, and geochemical tools to verify pure culture H2 threshold measurements for hyperthermophilic methanogenesis in low-temperature hydrothermal fluids from … 414 0 obj <>/Filter/FlateDecode/ID[<29E2C125F1AA974B84A066E38588054D>]/Index[395 30]/Info 394 0 R/Length 97/Prev 284175/Root 396 0 R/Size 425/Type/XRef/W[1 3 1]>>stream Gold is delivered to the seafloor in relatively low-temperature fluids (300 °C) as a gold bisulphide complex, Au (HS) 2−, and is precipitated during late stages of formation of the deposit when this fluid is thoroughly mixed with cold ambient seawater. Low temperature fields mean hydrothermal vents obtain half-day cycles per tidal load ; Trends affect gametogenesis, or the process in which a diploid or haploid cell becomes four haploid gametes through cell division ; What effect does this play on the plant/animal species of the area? “But even more interesting was the presence of a dense biological community living in and around the hydrothermal vents,” Ballard wrote in Oceanus. 0 Technical support issues arising from supporting information (other than missing files) should be addressed to the authors. There are two main types of hydrothermal vents. The difference of optimum pH for each reaction results in a pH window which can enhance the selectivity for a desired reaction. The environment at deep‐sea hydrothermal vents differs drastically from terrestrial environments, and there is still much to be learned from these unique ecosystems. At the same time however, carbon compounds with intermediate oxidation states such as CO, HCOOH, and to a lesser extent, C2H4, are also well known CO2 reduction products.23 Furthermore, virtually all biologically‐relevant molecules, such as nucleic acids, sugars, and proteins, possess a moderate carbon oxidation state (i. e., formal oxidation states between that of CH4 and CO2).66 At least under the assumption of standard conditions, the formation of these molecules is thermodynamically unfavorable, because either CO2 would not be reduced at all, or CO2 would be reduced to CH4. 424 0 obj <>stream A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated water issues. A thermophile is an organism—a type of extremophile—that thrives at relatively high temperatures, between 41 and 122 °C (106 and 252 °F). Chemical reactions that occur at vents are also considered, including organic synthesis and the formation of metal sulfides. These are called alkaline hydrothermal vents, and here’s how they work. Initially the temperature of the fluid released from hydrothermal vents is extreme - it can reach over 400°C. Indeed, such is the importance of chemistry and catalysis under extreme conditions that an entire session at the Solvay conference on chemistry in 2016 was dedicated to this topic.44 Therefore, previously overlooked strategies for the modern chemical industry may be obtained by interpreting the deep‐sea hydrothermal vent as a natural analogue. We used a combination of cultivation, molecular, and geochemical tools to verify pure culture H 2 threshold measurements for hyperthermophilic methanogenesis in low-temperature hydrothermal fluids from … Please check your email for instructions on resetting your password. The fields span a wide range of hydrothermal venting conditions characterized by different water temperatures and salt content, sulphide structure morphologies, and animal abundance. Here, processes and factors affecting the chemistry of hydrothermal fluid at high-temperature black smoker vents and the surrounding lower temperature diffuse flow zones are discussed. Numbers indicate equilibrium potentials at pH 5.5 in mV units. A number of mineralization types fall within this division but an important class, so far as Wales is concerned, is that of polymetallic veins. The different colors are due to different minerals being dissolved in the water. There are many empirically‐obtained, log‐linear relationships between the thermodynamic driving force and reaction rates such as the Arrhenius equation97 or the Hammett law,98 and Equation (4) is expected to provide reasonable estimates when these laws are maintained. These calculations suggest that seafloor hydrothermal vent fluids contain as much as 0.5–10 nmol/kg Au. Several active and inactive hydrothermal vents with complex chimney structures are distributed mainly in a rectangular area of 500 × 300 m. ‘Dragon’ vent with hydrothermal fluid temperature of up to 326°C is the hottest hydrothermal vent ever reported in the Hakurei hydrothermal field (Figure 4). The geothermal energy heats the vent water to high temperatures: in the case of black smokers the water may be as hot as 350˚C. The temperature results match up with experiments on related hydrothermal worm species taken from other deep-sea vents, said Ray Lee, a marine biologist at … . They are named for the black colored water that comes out of them, like the picture on the left. Black smokers emit the hottest, darkest plumes, which are high in sulfur content and form chimneys up to 18 stories tall, or 55 meters (180 feet). A number of mineralization types fall within this division but an important class, so far as Wales is concerned, is that of polymetallic veins. Going further, this may possibly even lead to a multi‐step chemical conversion system, either as cascade catalysis,107-109 or as several chemical reactors connected in series. is partially supported by NSF award# 1724300 “Collaborative Research: Biochemical, Genetic, Metabolic, and Isotopic Constraints on an Ancient Thiobiosphere”. The difference in the redox potential of the hydrothermal fluid and oxygen‐containing seawater allows the hydrothermal vent to function similarly to an electrochemical fuel cell.9-15 In line with this hypothesis, in 2010, we identified an electrical current passing through the chimney wall of a black smoker vent.9. 2 Alvin’s temperature sensors measured water temperatures of 8°C (46°F) at the bottom of the sea. The most spectacular kind of hydrothermal vent are called "black smokers", where a steady stream of "smoke" gushes from a chimney-like structures. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that at least some hydrothermal vents are composed of materials with low thermal conductivity. The temperatures of hydrothermal fluids are generally considered to be below the associated fluid boiling temperature due to mixing with ambient seawater and the phase separation process. This is reflected in microbial methanogenesis, where the exergonic formation of methane is coupled to the otherwise endergonic CO2 reduction.60-62 Non‐biologically, this is partly evident in the fact that CH4 is a commonly observed product of both heterogeneous and homogeneous CO2 reduction catalysts.14,26,63-65. All are living under extreme pressure and temperature changes. The vents are formed when cold (2° C; 35.6° F) seawater seeps into the sea floor, picks up heat and minerals, and then rises up and out of the seafloor, back into the ocean. This is possible due to the material properties of the chimney wall, namely their electrical conductivity and thermal insulation.5 These features allow the thermal and chemical gradients to be maintained, leading to variations in reaction environments which would likely create an environment suitable for the generation of a specific CO2 reduction product. The potential of the hydrothermal (HT) fluid has also been indicated in (A) as a dotted line in the corresponding color. at hydrothermal vents Hydrothermal vents are systems that occur when water is present in a steep geothermal gradient. Contact Research. reduction driven by a pH gradient For example, the 2 electron reduction from CO2 to CO has an equilibrium potential of −0.52 V vs SHE (standard hydrogen electrode) at pH 7, whereas the 8 electron reduction from CO2 to CH4 may occur at a potential 280 mV more positive.22,23 Therefore, if sufficient driving force is available to drive the initial steps of CO2 reduction, i. e., activation of CO2, it is possible to expect further reduced compounds to also be produced. Experimental studies have shown that temperature, pressure, sulfur fugacity (f S 2), and oxygen fugacity (f O 2) influence the Fe content of sphalerite.We present compositional in situ data on sphalerite from submarine volcanic-hosted massive sulfide (VHMS) ores of hydrothermal vents from different plate tectonic settings and with variable host-rock compositions. Here, E is the electrochemical potential, E0 is the potential under standard conditions, R is the gas constant, T is the temperature, n is the number of electrons transferred, F is the Faraday constant, and [Ox] and [Red] are the concentrations of the oxidized and reduced species, respectively. currently the world's deepest known hydrothermal vent field; temperature, position, and depth listed above are for Beebe Vents (Kinsey and German 2013); water column plume signal detected in November 2009 and its putative seafloor source called "Piccard" in German et al. Hydrothermal vents in the Endeavour area consist of large hot black smokers, chimney-like structures and surrounding lower temperature sites. But hydrothermal microorganisms are able to thrive just outside the hottest waters, in the temperature gradients that form between the hot venting fluid and cold seawater. Red, green, and blue pathways correspond to ΔGe>ΔGH, ΔGe=ΔGH, and ΔGe<ΔGH, respectively. However, based on the discussion of section 2.1, this lack of driving force can be overcome if there is a difference in the pH (proton concentration) and temperature across the chimney wall. endstream endobj startxref 4.11 Hydrothermal Vents A whole new ecosystem reliant on the processes of plate tectonics was discovered on the deep seafloor of the Galapagos Rift in 1977. Hydrothermal vents are analogous to hot springs on land. For example, at room temperature (300 K), changing the activity of a redox species by an order of magnitude modulates the electrochemical potential by 59 mV. The water coming out of the vents can reach incredible temperatures of up to 750 degrees F, even though the water outside of the vents can be near freezing in temperature. Although this potential is sufficient to initiate CO2 reduction on NiFe sulfide (Figure 4A), only CO was observed at −600 mV, suggesting a larger driving force is necessary to transfer more than two electrons.10 This driving force can be obtained if we also consider the elevated temperature of the hydrothermal fluid (∼500 K), as the H+/H2 redox potential is shifted even more negatively to −780 mV (Figure 4B, red line). Colonies of Riftia are anchored on the rocks where hydrothermal fluid (12–15°C) issues out onto the sea floor. Hot seawater in hydrothermal vents does not boil because of the extreme pressure at the depths where the vents are formed. 40 and 41. Schematic image of the redox chemistry at the vicinity of the hydrothermal vent triggered by geoelectricity. Hydrothermal activ-ity in the Guaymas Basin was first reported in the southern trough (e.g., Lupton, 1979; Gieskes et al., 1982; Campbell and Gieskes, 1984; Von Damm et al., 1985). Later work in the 1960s confirmed the presence of hot, 60 °C (140 °F), saline brines and associated metalliferous muds. Viele übersetzte Beispielsätze mit "hydrothermal vents" – Deutsch-Englisch Wörterbuch und Suchmaschine für Millionen von Deutsch-Übersetzungen. Chemical Gardens as Electrochemical Systems: In Situ Characterization of Simulated Prebiotic Hydrothermal Vents by Impedance Spectroscopy. Here, we review our past efforts to understand how deep‐sea hydrothermal vents may harness thermal energy to promote difficult chemical reactions such as CO2 reduction. Temperature gradients are an under-utilized source of energy with which to drive chemical reactions. These parameters are dictated by the equilibrium potential (E0) of electron transfer and the equilibrium pH (pKa) of proton transfer, which are unique to the reaction of interest. Hydrothermalquellen, hydrothermale Tiefseequellen, hydrothermale vents, heiße, mineralreiche Unterwasser-Quellen (bzw. Furthermore, a single chamber system has inherent difficulties in maintaining the reductive potential required to reduce CO2, due to the depletion of reductive chemicals in the vent fluid. The upper panel shows their Faradaic efficiency (FE). This would shift the H+/H2 redox potential from −330 mV (Figure 4B, black line) to −590 mV (Figure 4B, blue line). et al., 1982; Von Damm et al., 1985). The temperature of the water coming out of the vents has been measured at the source and it varies from just 68 degrees to as much as 600 degrees Fahrenheit. Because the pressure at these depths is so great, the water doesn't boil, and instead stays in liquid phase. Temperature gradients are an under‐utilized source of energy with which to drive chemical reactions. However, these reactions possess standard redox potentials more negative than the redox couple of H+/H2, the most reducing species in a hydrothermal fluid.8 In other words, the chimney wall is catalytically active for CO2 reduction, but the driving force is insufficient under standard conditions. In 1949, a deep water survey reported anomalously hot brines in the central portion of the Red Sea. Such structures surrounded by “leaky” membranes would allow sustained CO2 fixation, stimulating hypotheses as possible origins of life.51-54 Even in such a system, it is possible to supplement the thermodynamic driving force by pumping ions across the membrane, much like a modern cell.38 However, the molecular machinery required to couple ion transport with chemical reactions is an additional degree of complexity55 which is unnecessary in a two chamber system. Seawater in hydrothermal vents may reach temperatures of over 700° Fahrenheit. Alkaline Hydrothermal vents are also powered by geothermal energy, but less directly than the Black Smoker vents described above. Microbial productivity at hydrothermal vents is among the highest found anywhere in the deep ocean, but constraints on microbial growth and metabolism at vents are lacking. The first of these vents to be discovered, called the Lost City, is located about 20 kilometers away from the mid-Atlantic ridge. The principles that underlie both the establishment and the utilization of the thermodynamic driving force at hydrothermal vents can be employed in abiotic systems such as the modern chemical industry, yielding insight into carbon fixation reactions important today and possibly at the autotrophic origin of life. Hydrothermal vents may include black smokers, geysers ejecting cloudy water at a temperature of 400 °C (752 °F), or white smokers, around the same temperature but ejecting white clouds instead of black. Mesothermal literally means medium-temperature, and refers to hydrothermal mineral deposits formed at between 200-300°C. Although the water coming out of the vents is extremely hot, it isn't boiling because it is unable to … One example is the chalcopyrite minerals (Cu1+xFe1–xS2) obtained from the Snow Chimney black smoker vent of the Mariner field in the southern Lau Basin.5 Due to their surface microstructure, these minerals exhibited a combination of low thermal conductivity and high electric conductivity, leading to thermoelectric properties. Although the thermoelectric efficiency (ZT value) was two orders of magnitude lower than the most efficient artificial materials known today,58 it is nonetheless remarkable that a naturally occurring mineral can decouple the two conductivities to convert a temperature gradient into an electrical one while simultaneously maintaining the temperature gradient. Temperatures associated with black smokers are typically in … It is also to be noted here that enhancing the reaction selectivity is a critical issue for theories concerning the autotrophic origin of life. The hot solutions were emanating from an active subseafloor rift. Selectivity enhancement using SPET. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. Bacteria at hydrothermal vents inhabit almost everything: rocks, the seafloor, even the inside of animals like mussels. S.E.M. But despite the scalding heat, the environment around the vents is habitable for a range of animals. This 300-400 ° C fluid is also very buoyant and begins rising rapidly back to the surface, and eventually reenters the ocean at hydrothermal vents. at hydrothermal vents Hydrothermal vents are systems that occur when water is present in a steep geothermal gradient. Additionally, even if the thermodynamic driving force were sufficiently large, directing the selectivity of CO2 reduction to desired products requires regulation and suppression of a multitude of side reactions.24 This is an especially difficult challenge in a “messy” environment containing various chemical species, because directing the selectivity of electrochemical CO2 reduction is difficult even with state‐of‐the‐art catalysts in a pure environment.22-26 Understanding how this may become possible based on the laws of physical chemistry would yield critical insight into how life had originated from inorganic molecules (i. e., autotrophic innovation), which is one of the vital questions of natural science.27-36, Here, we will provide a brief summary of our past attempts to understand the energy and chemical conversion which takes place at deep sea hydrothermal vents (Figure 1). Working off-campus? Contributors: Nadine Le Bris (Convenor), Sophie Arnaud-Haond, Stace Beaulieu, Erik Cordes, Ana Hilario, Alex Rogers, lead member), Saskia van de Gaever Unterwasser-Geysire) aus Vulkanschloten (Vulkanismus) am Boden der Tiefsee, wo Kontinentalplatten (Plattentektonik) aneinander grenzen; hauptsächlich entlang des Ostpazifischen, Mittelatlantischen und Südwestindischen Rückens ( vgl. The geothermal energy heats the vent water to high temperatures: in the case of black smokers the water may be as hot as 350˚C. The redox potential of PS I is shown as a dotted blue line for reference. Water seeps through cracks in the Earth's crust, dissolving metals and minerals as it becomes super-heated from nearby magma. As a service to our authors and readers, this journal provides supporting information supplied by the authors. %%EOF Alkaline Hydrothermal Vents . All are living under extreme pressure and temperature changes. The term includes both the circulation of the well-known, high-temperature vent waters near the ridge crests, and the much-lower-temperature, diffuse flow of water through sediments and buried basalts further from the ridge crests. The respiratory plume is extended into … 10). This variability could allow specific reactions to proceed and concentrate in a certain niche environment. Chapter 45. This will be followed by section 2.2, where we will highlight how these strategies are actually implemented on metal sulfide minerals10,18 similar to those obtained from deep sea hydrothermal vents. Here, we review our past efforts to understand how deep‐sea hydrothermal vents may harness thermal energy to promote difficult chemical reactions such as CO 2 reduction. News Overview Publications ... they are characterized by varying temperatures, cold and hot (range 4 to 400 ºC), and the release of minerals, like barite, iron sulfide, pyrite, phosphorites, and elemental sulfur, that are not normally present in ocean waters. Deep‐sea hydrothermal vents and the ecosystems which surround them, provide valuable insight into this question.5-15 These environments lack sunlight, which constitutes the primary energy source of terrestrial ecosystems.16 This has resulted in the emergence of unique and sophisticated strategies to utilize other energy sources, such as chemical and thermal energy.5,10,12,14,15,17 The 3‐dimensional columnar structure of the chimney wall establishes spatial thermodynamic gradients,5,12 and the catalytic nature of its exterior10 is thought to allow CO2 to be reduced electrochemically to CO, HCOOH, and CH4.10,18,19 Previously, these reactions were considered to be driven primarily based on the enormous reductive energy discharged from the hydrothermal vents, such as from H2 and H2S.8,20 However, at least in terms of standard electrochemical potentials, the thermodynamic driving force derived from these reducing agents alone is insufficient,22,23 and the lack of driving force must be somehow supplemented by other energy sources. Bacteria at hydrothermal vents inhabit almost everything: rocks, the seafloor, even the inside of animals like mussels. Lying more than 3,800 meters (12,500 feet) below the surface, the Pescadero Basin vents are the deepest high-temperature hydrothermal vents ever observed in or around the Pacific Ocean. If we imagine a scenario where CO2 is reduced by mixing directly with the reductive hydrothermal fluid, there is no difference in the temperature or pH between the vent fluid and the CO2, because they coexist in the same environment.20,50 In other words, several hundred mVs worth of reductive energy is lost, purely because the single chamber system fails to harvest the thermodynamic disequilibria between the vent fluid and the sea water. We emphasize that the boost in the thermodynamic driving force is possible only because there are two distinct environments separated by a mineral wall. The authors declare no conflict of interest. Their … For example, while the participation of a CO2 radical anion has been proposed experimentally102,103 to explain the selectivity with respect to the competing hydrogen evolution reaction, the theoretical conclusions derived here do not necessarily require this specific intermediate to form. Natural selection based on coordination chemistry: computational assessment of [4Fe–4S]-maquettes with non-coded amino acids. This manipulation of the electrochemical driving force is based purely on the Nernst equation37 and the chemical disequilibria which exists across a conducting barrier, and thus requires no complex, molecular‐scale machinery such as ion pumps38 seen in contemporary biology. Familiar examples are the geysers of Yellowstone National Park, and the ‘black smokers’ at mid-ocean ridges. In section 2.1, we will highlight how the electrically conductive yet thermally insulative nature of the chimney wall can sufficiently decrease the electrochemical potential negatively such that CO2 reduction, which would otherwise be thermodynamically unfavorable, may proceed. Hydrothermal vents are considered one of the most extreme and dynamic environments on Earth, with temperatures ranging from 4 to 400°C, high pressure conditions, a complete absence of light, and abrupt chemical and pH gradients [23]. Here, we review our past efforts to understand how deep‐sea hydrothermal vents may harness thermal energy to promote difficult chemical reactions such as CO 2 reduction. High temperature hydrothermal vents, the "black smokers", were discovered in spring 1979 by a team from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography using the submersible Alvin. Although a reaction environment with high pressure and temperature may seem to offer little towards realizing clean and sustainable chemical processes, many crucial industrial chemical processes today, such as ammonia synthesis42 or olefin synthesis,43 take place under extreme conditions. The first hydrothermal vent had been discovered. As the superheated solutions come into contact with the cold water, … In this review, we have highlighted how these deep‐sea environments can harness project thermal and chemical energy, and how this may be used to drive specific chemical reactions such as CO2 reduction. High temperature hydrothermal vents, the "black smokers", were discovered in spring 1979 by a team from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography using the submersible Alvin. Their tubes, hydrothermal fluid, is called that comes out of them, like the picture the. Reach temperatures of 8°C ( 46°F ) at the bottom of the waters was not hospitable to living organisms specific! 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Electron, 2 proton reaction ( CO2+2H++2e−→CO+H2O ) one chamber system ( adapted from Ref in the the! As 0.5–10 nmol/kg Au PS I is shown as a result of diffuse heating from centers! 0.5–10 nmol/kg Au Future of origin of Life reactions, ” says McDermott depths of the.!
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